Why do we dream

Dreams are the touchstones of our characters." - Henry David Thoreau

Dreams have fascinated philosophers for thousands of years, but only recently have dreams been subjected to empirical research and concentrated scientific study. Chances are that you’ve often found yourself puzzling over the mysterious content of a dream, or perhaps you’ve wondered why you dream at all.

First, let’s start by answering a basic question – What is a dream? A dream can include any of the images, thoughts and emotions that are experienced during sleep. Dreams can be extraordinarily vivid or very vague; filled with joyful emotions or frightening imagery; focused and understandable or unclear and confusing.

Why do we dream? What purpose do dreams serve? While many theories have been proposed, no single consensus has emerged. Considering the enormous amount of time we spend in a dreaming state, the fact that researchers do not yet understand the purpose of dreams may seem baffling. However, it is important to consider that science is still unraveling the exact purpose and function of sleep itself.

Some researchers suggest that dreams serve no real purpose, while others believe that dreaming is essential to mental, emotional and physical well-being. Ernest Hoffman, director of the Sleep Disorders Center at Newton Wellesley Hospital in Boston, Mass., suggests that "...a possible (though certainly not proven) function of a dream to be weaving new material into the memory system in a way that both reduces emotional arousal and is adaptive in helping us cope with further trauma or stressful events."⁸

Next, let’s learn more about some of the most prominent dream theories.

Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreams:

Consistent with the psychoanalytic perspective, Sigmund Freud’s theory of dreams suggested that dreams were a representation of unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. According to Freud’s psychoanalytic view of personality, people are driven by aggressive and sexual instincts that are repressed from conscious awareness. While these thoughts are not consciously expressed, Freud suggested that they find their way into our awareness via dreams.

In his famous book The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud wrote that dreams are "...disguised fulfillments of repressed wishes."¹ He also described two different components of dreams: manifest content and latent content. Manifest content is made up of the actual images, thoughts and content contained within the dream, while the latent content represents the hidden psychological meaning of the dream.

Freud’s theory contributed to the popularity of dream interpretation, which remains popular today. However, research has failed to demonstrate that the manifest content disguises the real psychological significance of a dream.²

Activation- Synthesis Model of Dreaming:

The activation-synthesis model of dreaming was first proposed by J. Allan Hobson and Robert McClarley in 1977. According to this theory, circuits in the brain become activated during REM sleep, which causes areas of the limbic system involved in emotions, sensations and memories, including the amygdala and hippocampus, to become active. The brain synthesizes and interprets this internal activity and attempts to find meaning in these signals, which results in dreaming. This model suggests that dreams are a subjective interpretation of signals generated by the brain during sleep.³

While this theory suggests that dreams are the result of internally generated signals, Hobson does not believe that dreams are meaningless. Instead, he suggests that dreaming is "…our most creative conscious state, one in which the chaotic, spontaneous recombination of cognitive elements produces novel configurations of information: new ideas. While many or even most of these ideas may be nonsensical, if even a few of its fanciful products are truly useful, our dream time will not have been wasted."⁴

Other Theories of Dreams:

Many other theories have been suggested to account for the occurrence and meaning of dreams. The following are just of few of the proposed ideas:

·  One theory suggests that dreams are the result of our brains trying to interpret external stimuli during sleep. For example, the sound of the radio may be incorporated into the content of a dream ⁵.

·   Another theory uses a computer metaphor to account for dreams. According to this theory, dreams serve to 'clean up' clutter from the mind, much like clean-up operations in a computer, refreshing the mind to prepare for the next day ⁶.

·    Yet another model proposes that dreams function as a form of psychotherapy. In this theory, the dreamer is able to make connections between different thoughts and emotions in a safe environment ⁷.

·  A contemporary model of dreaming combines some elements of various theories. The activation of the brain creates loose connections between thoughts and ideas, which are then guided by the emotions of the dreamer ⁸.

نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Thu 6 Oct 2011 ساعت 5:36 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

A friend in need is a friend indeed

A friend in need is a friend indeed

نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Thu 6 Oct 2011 ساعت 5:34 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

Don't Forget You're a Shining STAR

نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Thu 6 Oct 2011 ساعت 5:32 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

How Many Marks out of Ten? A Hard Look at Marking and Grading Systems

Ralph  Rowbottom

Are systems which use marks out of 10 or 100 as precise or scientific as they seem? Drawing upon experience of marking student scripts, the author looks at grading systems in general, and points to the solid merits of traditional A-to-C systems modified where necessary with pluses and minuses.

Soon after taking up a research post in social science at Brunel University  in West London in the late 1960s, I was asked to do some postgraduate teaching, and in consequence, introduced to the prevailing system for marking students’ written-work. Not for Brunel, one of the new wave of technological universities, the primary-school simplicities of marks-out-of-ten, or antiquated schemes using the alphabetical symbols of classical Greek. With the sort of scientific precision looked for, nothing short of marks on a scale of 0 -100 would do.

I remember at some early point thereafter receiving an essay from one student which I thought so good that I gave it a mark of 85, only to be gently informed by the head of department concerned that it was not the done thing to allocate marks of much above the mid-seventies. Further enquiries revealed the existence of three practical benchmarks in general use: at least 40 for a bare pass, at least 55 for an adequate pass, and at least 70 for a distinction. As well as the range 75 – 100 being out of play, as it were, people rarely if ever seemed to use markings of much below 30 – 35. Thus in practice, over half the scale was completely redundant – a fact which struck me, though seemingly nobody else, as rather strange.

I struggled for a while, sometimes on my own, sometimes with co-examiners, with fine decisions like whether a particular piece of work merited a full 68 marks, a more modest 67, or even a bare 66. Gradually I evolved for my own use a much simpler system with a mere seven or so grades employing old-fashioned terms like A-minus and B-plus, into which I found I could rapidly slot incoming pieces of work (without indeed having to read, or in many cases even decipher, every individual word – still handwritten in those days). And I then translated the result into one of seven or so marks which I chose as standard, on the obligatory 0 -100 scale.

Now what lay behind the official system here, was I suggest, typical of so many ill-conceived approaches to the subject of marking or (to use a more general and appropriate term) grading. What people would like in general from any system of marking or grading is something which is very precise – hence the choice of marks out of 100 rather than just 10 – and, even more important perhaps, something which is extremely objective: something which approaches scientific measurement rather than remaining a matter of subjective opinion. Unfortunately grading is by its very nature not measurement, but a species of appraisal or evaluation, and there is all the difference in the world between the two.

Measurement versus Appraisal

Where it is possible and appropriate, true measurement is indeed objective. Looked at from a social or historical point of view, it can be seen that the process of measuring things grew precisely out of the need to provide an objective and authoritative ruling where individual judgement was fallible, or where (as often happened) the judgement of different protagonists was at odds. Would that heavy, and distant, log, actually bridge the stream if effort was spent in dragging it there? What constituted a fair portion of meat, or volume of milk, for example, in fulfilment of an agreed purchase or bargain? Did the tenant deliver the full-days work on his landlord’s fields, and just what did a ‘full-day’ actually mean? Measuring-rules. weighing-scales, and clocks were devices developed precisely to settle these and similar uncertainties and disputes.

Now, there are many areas of human activity where judgements of value are regularly made, but where measurement, in the precise sense just described, is impossible. Is this person capable enough to operate as a surgeon (say), or to install high-voltage wiring? Has that employee’s performance justified the allocation of a merit award, or not? Is that inner-city school up to standard? Are those dresses-for-sale sufficiently-well finished? Which of these graduates are crème-de-la-crème. and which are simply run-of-the-mill? Answers may be definitely needed, but no measuring instruments can be devised to settle any doubts or disagreements. Appraisals or evaluations have to he made as best as possible. In any particular case the outcome is in the end a matter of opinion, though the exercise of forming that opinion can certainly be helped by the creation of appropriate guides and criteria, and its authority enhanced by using judges who are knowledgeable and experienced in the field concerned, and regarded as people of suitable integrity and balance. In any such activities there may often be a case for expressing outcomes in the form of allocated grades, but (to repeat the point), this does not change what is going on from some kind of appraisal, as opposed to true measurement.

The Unsoundness of Numerical-Marking Systems

Often, where performances or products are required to be judged or graded. numerical marking systems are used – marks out of ten, for example (or even marks out of a hundred). Using hard numbers appears more precise and scientific than just using terms like ‘Grade A’ or ‘‘Pass with Credit’, as well as allowing the creation of totals to indicate overall performance by the process of simple addition. But the precision is illusory. and the totals far less-dependable indicators than might at first seem.

For a start, it is extremely difficult, in grading any one individual unit, to develop really useful guides or criteria to differentiate the allocation of say, three-out-of-ten from four-out-of-ten, let alone say, 67-out-of-100 from 68-out-of-100 – as already observed. And as for adding together (or averaging) the scores on many different units or tests to create an overall mark, there is always a hidden assumption that the individual units themselves are of identical value. But how can you prove, when trying to produce some overall index of a student’s performance, that the geography exam (say) was exactly as difficult as the physics exam? And who can prove without doubt when adding up marks in an arithmetic test, that 173-take-away-98 (say). is truly as easy as 2O-take-away-15? In both instances, the apparent objectivity and precision are spurious. We are forced to conclude that marking and aggregating systems of all these kinds are fundamentally flawed.

Appropriate Grading Systems

So, where performances or products need to be differentially appraised, and allocated some sort of label or certificate, how should we best proceed, given that numerical marking-systems claim more than they deliver, and are therefore basically unsound? The general answer is that some sort of non-numerical grading system is called for, and the guiding principle is that it should in each case, be no more complex than the subject under review basically warrants. As I shall now argue, the most appropriate form of labelling in all more-developed systems is one using alphabetical letters. We have already ruled out numerical-marking. Alternatives which use terms like ‘Grade One’, ‘Grade Two’, etc. fail, at any rate where more complex systems are called for, to allow for the ready use of what I describe below as ‘secondary qualifications’. Systems of stars, ‘One Star’, ‘Two Star’ and so on suffer this same disadvantage, as well as offering once again, the seductive possibility of aggregating the stars allocated to individual units to produce a total ‘staridge’, some apparently-reliable index of overall value.

Let us look then at how a variety of well-designed grading systems might evolve, starting from the very simplest.

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نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Tue 17 May 2011 ساعت 11:15 AM موضوع | لینک ثابت

Table Manners for Chidren

Table manners are the rules of etiquette used while eating, which may also include the appropriate use of utensils. Different cultures observe different rules for table manners. Each family or group sets its own standards for how strictly these rules are to be enforced.

Good table manners for children are important skills that should be developed when they are young. If you adopt the 'do as I say and not as I do' approach it simply won't work.

Your child must see you and the rest of the family setting the etiquette and good manners standards, be it at the dinner table, greeting people or answering the phone, in fact, with anything and everything you do.

 Remember you are never alone, the little eyes are watching your every move! How else do children learn? They mimic the way you sit at the dinner table, the way you eat, the way you walk, the way you talk, in fact they mimic everything you do.

نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Thu 28 Apr 2011 ساعت 7:6 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

How do we greet people?

When meeting someone for the first time, it is usual to shake the person's right hand with your right hand. People who do not know each other generally do not kiss or hug when meeting. When you first meet someone, it is polite not to talk about personal matters.

Many Iranians look at the eyes of the people they are talking with. They consider this a sign of respect, and an indication that they are listening. Do not stare at the person for a long time.

You can address a new acquaintance using their title and family name. You may use their first name when they ask you to or use it in the introduction. In the workplace most Iranians tend to be formal and call each other by their Last names.

Are greeting customs different for men and women? How?

How do you think the people in these countries greet each other? There are many different greeting customs around the world. Here are some.
IRAN

Iran is a proud and ancient civilization which, in addition to current day Islamic customs and practices, has also preserved many pre-Islamic customs.

...

please see the continue...

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نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Thu 28 Apr 2011 ساعت 7:2 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

How do you spend your off hours? Do you watch television? Do you surf the web? Read articles here at Lifehack.org? There are many ways you can spend your leisure time. But is it really possible to get more out of your time off? Not just making this time more productive, but actually making it more enjoyable.

Breaking the Work/Play Distinction

I believe the answer goes against what many of us have been taught about how to spend our free time. From early childhood we’ve been taught to divide everything to do into two groups, work and leisure. Work consists of all the things we need to do and leisure is everything else.

Splitting the world this way isn’t necessarily wrong. But the subtle message contained in this split is that work and leisure shouldn’t resemble each other. Your work needs to be productive, efficient and challenging. Therefore leisure should be relaxing, accomplish nothing and be free of pressures.

Why This Kills Your Free Time

The problem is this assumption, that work should be the opposite of leisure, ruins your free time. The belief that the most enjoyable moments of life are spent relaxing in the fruits of our labor doesn’t match the real world. Research has shown that the most enjoyable moments of our life are the ones where we are most engaged.

Psychology researcher Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi recorded this phenomenon. He did this through a device that pinged at random points in time. The subject then filled out a form based on their feelings, thoughts and current activity. What he found was people have more enjoyable experiences from work than from their time off. He mentions this paradox in his book, Flow:

I believe the dissatisfaction for work stems from the external need to work. Since we cannot exercise freedom in choosing to show up every morning, it is easy to begrudge the time there. Even if it produces positive experiences in our lives.

The Answer Isn’t Becoming a Workaholic

I don’t believe the resolution of this problem, is to work all the time. I think that would only exacerbate a situation where people feel trapped by oppressive work schedules. Even if jobs can produce, challenging flow experiences, putting all your eggs into one basket can be risky.

Instead, Fill Your Spare Time With Active Leisure

Active leisure is free activities you choose that challenge and fulfill you. But because you take up these tasks through internal desires, not external constraints, you won’t feel trapped by them.

Many people have found ways to incorporate active leisure into their lives. Taking up hobbies, sports and learning new skills even when time is limited. But as the standard forty hour workweek gets pushed longer and passive entertainment becomes easier to consume, it is harder to take up active leisure.

Leisure is Hard Work

Upgrading your leisure time to make it more enjoyable isn’t always easy. This may sound backwards, since many people believe the purpose of leisure is to be easy. But sometimes the benefits of being active in your time off aren’t immediately apparent.

Activity requires that you invest your attention. The body was designed to be efficient, not enjoyable, so it may resist your attempts to invest energy in anything non-essential.

How to Start the Active Leisure Habit

There are many ways you can upgrade your leisure time, but it requires effort. Unlike watching television or relaxing, opportunities for flow need to be structured in advance. It can sometimes require planning and always requires an initial push of momentum to get started.

I suggest an experiment. Try replacing some low-energy task with a more engaging one. Continue it for a month. After that month, if you don’t feel the new task is more satisfying than your old usage of time, quit. This is about enjoyment, not productivity, so you don’t need to feel guilty if you decide to switch back later.

Suggestions for Active Leisure

Here are a couple ideas to get the ball rolling:

1. Join Toastmasters – At toastmasters.org you can find clubs near your location. There are thousands of them and they are a great experience. I’ve known many people who tell me Toastmasters is the highlight of their week.
2. Start a Craft - Try learning a new hobby or restarting an old one. Painting, woodworking, sculpting, programming or blogging are all great starts. Buy a tutorial book to get you started and learn from there.
3. Play Sports – Find a physical activity that will get you to move and provides a challenging environment. Not only will this keep you healthy, but it will put your mind into a state of flow more easily than sitting on the couch.
4. Learn a New Language – Challenge yourself to learn a new language. This has always been a goal of mine. I’ve heard from many sources that it can be both challenging an enjoyable to gain fluency in a non-native tongue.
5. Play a Game – Computer games and interactive entertainment can be great ways to produce flow. Although you can get addicted to the enjoyable environment, structuring a small amount of time to play games can engage you mind to have fun.
6. Start a Project – One of my personal favorites is to get a new project going. Starting a project to complete something over the course of a couple months can be exciting and incredibly rewarding. Go start that novel you’ve been thinking about.

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نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Tue 26 Apr 2011 ساعت 6:57 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

Left-handedness

A person writing the Dutch word "Linkshandig" (left-handed) with the left hand

Left-handedness is the preference for the left hand over the right for everyday activities such as writing. A variety of studies suggest that 10% of world population are left-handed.^[1]

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نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Sat 23 Apr 2011 ساعت 6:57 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

The Babylonians marked time with lunar months. They proscribed some activities during several days of the month, particularly the

first -- the first visible crecent,
seventh -- the waxing half moon,
fourteenth -- the full moon,
nineteenth -- dedicated to an offended goddess,
twenty-first -- the waning half moon,
twenty-eigth -- the last visible crecent,
twenty-nineth -- the invisible moon, and
thirtieth (possibly) -- the invisible moon.

Tiu (Twia) is the English/Germanic god of war and the sky. He is identified with the Norse god Tyr.

Mars is the Roman god of war.

Ares is the Greek god of war.

Wednesday -- Woden's day

Woden is the chief Anglo-Saxon/Teutonic god. Woden is the leader of the Wild Hunt. Woden is from wod "violently insane" + -en "headship". He is identified with the Norse Odin.

Mercury is the Roman god of commerce, travel, theivery, eloquence and science. He is the messenger of the other gods.

Hermes is the Greek god of commerce, invention, cunning, and theft. He is the messenger and herald of the other gods. He serves as patron of travelers and rogues, and as the conductor of the dead to Hades.

Thursday -- Thor's day

Thor is the Norse god of thunder. He is represented as riding a chariot drawn by goats and wielding the hammer Miölnir. He is the defender of the Aesir, destined to kill and be killed by the Midgard Serpent.

Jupiter (Jove) is the supreme Roman god and patron of the Roman state. He is noted for creating thunder and lightning.

Zeus is Greek god of the heavens and the supreme Greek god.

Friday -- Freya's day

Freo is identical with freo, meaning free. It is from the Germanic frijaz meaning "beloved, belonging to the loved ones, not in bondage, free".

Freya (Fria) is the Teutonic goddess of love, beauty, and fecundity (prolific procreation). She is identified with the Norse god Freya. She is leader of the Valkyries and one of the Vanir. She is confused in Germany with Frigg.

Frigg (Frigga) is the Teutonic goddess of clouds, the sky, and conjugal (married) love. She is identified with Frigg, the Norse goddess of love and the heavens and the wife of Odin. She is one of the Aesir. She is confused in Germany with Freya.

Venus is the Roman goddess of love and beauty.

Aphrodite (Cytherea) is the Greek goddess of love and beauty.

Saturday -- Saturn's day

Saturn is the Roman and Italic god of agriculture and the consort of Ops. He is believed to have ruled the earth during an age of happiness and virtue.

Cronus (Kronos, Cronos) is the Greek god (Titan) who ruled the universe until dethroned by his son Zeus.

Sources

William Morris, editor, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, New College Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1976

Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, Portland House, New York, 1989

نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Mon 18 Apr 2011 ساعت 6:5 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت

Wherever the Common Era Calendar (a.k.a. the Gregorian Calendar) is used — and it is now used by the governments of all countries — a week of seven days is also used in conjunction with it. But there is no 7‑day cycle in Nature from which this could have been derived, so why a week of seven days?

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نوشته شده توسط Mermaid در Mon 18 Apr 2011 ساعت 5:58 PM موضوع | لینک ثابت